Expression Under Oppression: A Look At Flamenco’s Past
Photo Credit: Anjola Adesina
An expectant silence falls upon the rows of focused faces in the concert hall. The woman onstage draws a deep breath. Poised, she throws her head back and starts to sing. She unleashes a sound that is powerful yet sensitive, directed yet passionate. I sit, arrested, without realising that I am hearing a voice that echoes centuries past.
Over a millennium of individual stories, struggles and songs have shaped the voices of the cantaors/as (flamenco singers) that perpetuate the ancestral cante (flamenco singing) in the present day. The fervent emotions that were long ago woven into music, which later developed into flamenco, have not lost their potency but are immortalised through the continuation of cantes. While flamenco’s emotional legacy can be traced, the informal and spontaneous manner in which it came into its own genre makes it difficult to pinpoint its exact history and evolution. Nevertheless, by having an attentive ear and listening closely, you can be transported through both time and space by the music.
What I found most striking during the flamenco performance that I saw in Palau de la Música Catalana were the notes that seemed reminiscent of music from the Middle East. This is due to the use of Phrygian scale in flamenco music, which essentially means only using the notes on the white keys on the piano from E-E. Phrygian mode is almost identical to the Arabic Hijaz scale, that differs by only one note, which explains the tonal similarities between flamenco and Middle Eastern music. This suggests that the Arabs, along with the Berbers, who invaded and ruled Spain from 711-1492, had a direct impact on flamenco.
However, these sounds of caliphal conquest later diminished into songs of subjugation. In 1492, the armies of the Catholic monarchs Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon seized the last Muslim stronghold in Granada. The Treaty of Granada briefly allowed religious tolerance of Muslim practices, but soon, the Inquisition demanded that the Moriscos (descendants of Arabs, Berbers and Spaniards) either convert to Christianity or be exiled to North Africa.
The Moriscos became outsiders in what was once their territory – in what was once their home. The subsequent execution of those who refused conversion and exile drove masses of Moriscos to rural and mountainous areas surrounding Granada. Here, Sephardic Jews and Romani dwellers also sought refuge from the danger they faced as being non-Christians. On the periphery of early sixteenth century Spanish society, these ostracised groups suffered hardships, which were often expressed through music. The liminality of the physical and cultural space facilitated a creative exchange which formed a foundation for flamenco cante as we now know it today.
Whilst flamenco tonality can be seen as being influenced by the Arab settlers, it was also impacted by the Romani population who had migrated from across the Mediterranean. The Phrygian mode used in flamenco music could also be considered a direct influence of Romani musical tradition, as many Romani melodies also use the Phrygian mode. In fact, nowadays, both the Phrygian mode and the Hijaz scale are blended into some flamenco songs, which indicates the musical dialogue between these different communities. The shared experiences of these marginalised communities are beautifully synthesised in flamenco.
Photo Credit: Anjola Adesina
Roots that predate the formal inception of flamenco can also be detected in its technique. The melismatic style (singing many notes over one vowel) is characteristic of Arabic singing, and the quejío (a bit like a voice crack), which conveys lamentation and profound grief, reminds me of the Muslim Call to Prayer. The rhythms (compás) of bulerías and soleas (styles of flamenco) also evoke the chaabi rhythms from North Africa, which were likely brought over by the Berbers. Although there is no concrete evidence for these suggestions, what remains evident is that flamenco is a rich coalescence of music created from cultural fusion.
In later centuries, flamenco continued to exist solely in the form of singing and clapping rhythms, but it was also infused with the emotional intensity of the working-class Andalusians. In the late eighteenth century, flamenco came into its own form and reached great popularity in the second half of the nineteenth century. Cafés cantantes (flamenco cafes) ensured its exposure, and with it, flamenco carved out its own identity.
While the legacy of flamenco is not as grievous as its beginnings, it must be acknowledged that it was ushered through the sorrows of those who endured torment into Spanish culture. The cantaora that I saw onstage was not only singing from her soul, but was channelling the woes and perseverance of the countless others who have sung before her.